AEIT 101: Foundations of Adult Education
In order to build any solid structure, a good foundation is required. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, a foundation is “an underlying base or support, especially the whole substructure of a building, a body or ground upon which something is built” (www.m-w.com). Foundations must be durable to support the structure that is built above. For this reason, the Foundations of Adult Education course delves into various philosophical approaches to adult education and learning. Investigation of behavior theories helps the adult education instructor or trainer develop his or her approach to methods of instruction. In this foundational course on adult education, it is important to discuss the definition of what exactly is meant by ‘adult education’ as well as its purpose and how that has changed throughout its history.
Before we look into the term ’adult education’ and what exactly that means, it important to reflect on your connection and interest in the field of adult education. Why are you studying this course? What does ‘adult education’ mean to you? The definition of ‘adult education’ is not clear and concise and seems to change with time and location. Continuing education for faculty and staff can be considered adult education. A job skills training program or corporate training sessions for management can, also, be considered adult education. On the other hand, a community yoga class could be considered adult education to some. What seems to be the common thread throughout all the mentioned activities? All are organized activities, classes or training seminars, involving adults being trained or taught.
Since the founding of America, the pursuit of religious freedom has been foundational. As a result, the first and foremost purpose of adult education in colonial days was to receive salvation. The Bible was the text used for education in that era. Following the Revolutionary War, there was a need for leaders to be developed to govern the new democracy.
Therefore, the need for civic responsibility superseded the religious emphasis in adult education.
The concept of adulthood, actually, did not enter American society until after the Civil War (1861-1865). In colonial times, an individual reached adulthood at the ‘age of discretion.’ This was based on the English common law which was determined by principles established through a long history of judicial decisions. These resolutions were, in turn, based on the custom and values of the society which created them. The ‘age of discretion’ was 14 for males and 12 for females. Therefore, back in those days, any form of education intended for people above the ages of 12-14 was considered ‘adult education.’
Today, a 14 year old can be tried in the judicial system as an adult. One can make the decision to leave mandatory school at the age of sixteen. Voting is permitted at age eighteen. The age of legal alcohol consumption in the United States, for the most part, is 21 (although in 19 states, individuals under the age of 21 can consume alcohol legally under certain conditions). Many cultures consider puberty the entrance to adulthood. Although one’s chronological age is a key factor in determining adulthood, that age varies according to the culture. The answer to when adulthood begins, therefore, is determined by one’s culture and the society one lives in.
In recent U.S. history, laws have been passed to protect the privacy of patients (HIPAA) and students (FERPA) who are 18 years old and older and consider the age of 18 to be a legal age of adulthood. One thing is factual – adults are older than children. There are behavioral expectations of adults that vary according to the environment and culture. There is quite a variety of habits, character traits, tastes, intelligence levels, and beliefs throughout the span of adults in society. Adults are expected to be more responsible than children although maturity does not, necessarily, come with age.
There is great worth in examining the history of adult education in the United States. Looking back throughout the rich past of adult education can help us form a clearer picture of our own practice as an adult instructor or trainer. The information from the past years can provide insight and inspiration for our present and future in adult education.
In 1874, a training school was founded in Chautauqua, New York to educate adults as Sunday school teachers. The response to the program was so terrific that it grew to include a wide range of subjects for adults. One of the school’s earliest presidents, William Rainey Harper, later introduced adult correspondence study at the University of Chicago while he was president there. The institution continues to flourish to the present day as a major hub for adult education. It is one of the few institutions that was designed for adult education from its conception.
In 1917, The Smith-Hughes Act launched vocational education in public schools for adults and youth above age fourteen. The National Education Association created the Department of Adult Education in 1924. At first, the aim of the department was focused on educating Americans who were foreign born, but later the scope grew to all adult education interests. The American Association of Adult Education (A.A.A.E.) was organized in 1926. This was the first organization to give structure and visibility to adult education as a profession.
In 1932, in the Tennessee hills, Myles Horton founded the Highlander Folk School, now called the Highlander Center for Research and Education. He began with labor education classes to help adults be more capable in their work and lives. Later, classes focused more on citizenship, voter education, and the civil rights movement. Horton organized workshops for the purpose of destroying racial segregation. Forty years before segregation laws were repealed, Blacks and Whites were studying and living on campus together at Highlander. Famous social activists such as Rosa Parks, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Martin Luther King, Jr. studied at the Highlander Center for Research and Education. The school continues to be a catalyst for social reform.
Horton created the school to help solve problems through experiential learning. He believed that the purpose of education is to help the individual do something for others. Horton had a "two-eye" approach to teaching – with one eye, he would try to see the student as he or she was; with the other eye, he would see what he or she could become. In his autobiography, Horton said, "My job as a gardener or educator is to know that the potential is there and that it will unfold. People have a potential for growth; it's inside, it's in the seed" (1990, p. 33).
The term ‘adult education’ was not established as a profession until after World War I. As society changed, adult education seemed to respond to the specific needs within that society. After the Civil War, the purpose of adult education was for the developing of morally responsible leaders. In more recent years, it is necessary for the retraining of adults in new vocations. One of the reasons for adult education in America today is related to the movement away from an industrial economy and toward a more information-based economy. In order to compete with the current global economy American adults are being trained and retrained. The explosion of technology has launched the need for ‘distance education,’ an entire new field within, but not limited to, adult education. Busy adults can access the class at anytime, day or night, at their convenience. This can provide an excellent learning opportunity for the student if the instructor and institution are learner-centered and do all that is necessary to assist the student.
In 1970, Malcolm Knowles, brought the term ‘androgogy’ to life even though Alexander Kapp of Germany actually coined the term in 1833 (Merriam and Brockett, 2007). Knowles originally saw andragogy as the opposite of pedagogy, the process of helping children learn (1970). He viewed the mission of adult education as that of satisfying "the needs of individuals, institutions, and society." According to John A. Henschke ‘andragogy’ is “defined as a scientific discipline for study of the research, theory, processes, technology, practice, and anything else of value and benefit including learning, teaching, instructing, guiding, leading, and modeling/exemplifying a way of life, which would help to facilitate and bring adults to their full degree of humaneness.” (http://www.lindenwood.edu/education/andragogy.cfm) Simply stated, andragogy is “a set of assumptions and methods pertaining to the process of helping adults learn” (Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982). Andragogy is seen as part of the broader field of adult education, human resource development, and lifelong learning.
The term ‘lifelong learning’ (LLL) refers to people desiring to learn throughout the course of life. This desire to be educated in certain areas is voluntary and can be for occupational reasons and/or personal development. Learning can take place throughout one’s lifespan in many, different environments according to the philosophy of lifelong learning. According to the European Commission for Education and Training, lifelong learning is crucial to economic success and essential for individuals to fully participate in society.
Although self-directed learning received significant attention from the 1970s to the 1990s, its concept is as old as the hills. Self-directed learning refers to "a process in which an individual takes the initiative, with or without the help of others," to determine one’s learning needs, create learning goals, find resources for learning, implement strategies, and evaluate outcomes (Knowles, 1975). An estimated 70 percent of adult learning is self-directed learning (Cross 1981).
Adult education is intentional, purposeful, and organized. It involves a planned class/training session or series of systematic classes/training sessions intended to spawn learning. The immediate goal is to change or increase the student’s knowledge or ability. In adult education, the teacher/trainer is to provide new information to the student in an organized format in such a way that learning of the new skills and/or knowledge can occur.
Sunday, 29 March 2020
Adult Education and Adult Learning Analysis
It is my conviction that the noble profession of instructing teachers is the greatest, most powerful contributor to nation-building. Teachers, within the school system, have the responsibility of imparting knowledge, acting as agents of socialization, creating responsible, productive members of society, and guiding students towards the achievement of their goals.
It is, therefore, important that great emphasis is placed on training teachers since, in Education, teachers are viewed as significant contributors to the quality of students produced. Thus, the input by teachers will have a direct bearing on strategies and materials needed to aid the learner in educational pursuit to achieve at the highest possible level. As an adult instructor at the Cyril Potter College of Education where teachers are trained to be professionals, the main goal of the college is to create learning experiences that would, "…help individuals satisfy their needs and achieve their goals," the ultimate goal being "human fulfillment" as is encouraged in the writings of Knowles (1980) p.27.
The concepts of adult education and adult learning varies from person to person and theorist to theorist. It is important to note that there are marked similarities between Adult Education and Adult Learning. Thomas (1991) states that "…education cannot exist without learning…" since they both contribute to the personal and societal growth of the Adult Learner. These learning experiences are, therefore, integrated into the curriculum of Adult Education. This gives the Adult Learner greater liberty in directing their learning and its outcomes. In some cases, learning practices are even adjusted with the discovery of new research.
Another similarity existing between Adult Education and Learning is that both can take place in formal and informal settings. A formal setting, as described by Stephen Brookfield's (Course Video), is characterized by "…rows of desks neatly arranged with heads meticulously bent over them reviewing content." Adult Education and Adult Learning consist of a combination of formal and informal settings from which experiences are gained. These experiences expose the Adult Learner to different methods of learning and encourage them to incorporate the skills attained into study practices and to life situations as a whole. Here, I reflect on pursuing my Degree in( Geography). This area was chosen because it was in keeping with my career goal. I learned in formal and informal settings. Upon completion of this program, a certificate was awarded. It is worthy of mention that Adult Education depends on the Adult learning outcomes, which are rewarded by certificates, diplomas, and degrees.
However, there are differences that exist between Adult Education and Adult Learning. One such difference is that Adult Education occurs through planned activities geared to appeal to the cognitive ability of the Adult Learner while Adult Learning "is the unplanned, incidental learning that is part of everyday life…" as is cited in the writing of (Merriam & Brockett, 2007.p.7). I recall learning to bake bread from my mother, who was a Home Economics teacher attached to the school I attended. Her classes were theory-based, which highlighted the ingredients to the texture of the dough and the process to attain the right texture. However, I never got my bread just right. Subsequently, I viewed a program on a cooking channel on television and decided to bake a pan of bread for dinner. To my surprise, it was the best-baked bread I had ever eaten. This comment may be viewed as subjective. Nevertheless, the essence of this is that learning isn't limited to the classroom for an Adult Learner. Adult Education, on the other hand, occurs through planned cognitive processes, which are not always the best method to employ to Adult learners, as was highlighted in my scenario.
A benefit of Adult Learning manifests itself as I recall the former years of my teaching career. At this point, I was no more than four years older than my students-many of whom considered me as their peer. This process was plagued with many trials and uncountable errors. Some of these errors ranged from screaming at the top of my lungs to control an unruly class while contributing to the noise also, to dismissing students who showed no interest in learning. Today, I am much wiser -thanks to the experiences I've had. It was after instructing my "peers" in the Secondary school that I knew I wanted to be an educator. Merely imparting knowledge to students was no longer enough; I wanted to instruct teachers on appropriate methodologies based on my experience and the expectations of the curriculum and of society at large. Today, I am better able to employ strategies to deal with similar situations and to also deal effectively with new ones. This is portrayed in Stephen Brookfield (course video), where 'adulthood' is viewed as "… a range of experiences upon which adults can draw" and grow as individuals.
One drawback of formal Adult Institutions where Adult education takes place is that a lot of emphases is placed on theory. This leaves the learner unable to apply this information to real-life situations or solve problems. Later, this can contribute to problems in the adult's work environment since there is very little one can draw from and identify with. One may be seen as a liability rather than an asset to one's employer. Another drawback of Adult Education is that adult learners are unable to build on the experience gained and cannot apply it to the learning situation since they are emotionally incapable of change. A third drawback of Adult Education is that Adult Learners are all taught the same way. Adulthood comes with many challenges ranging from social to economic in origin. With this in mind, Adult Educational institutions can benefit the Adult learner by:
1. "Encouraging the Adult learner to practice teaming both in and out of the school environment through teaching teams, thus developing partnerships with other organizations.
2. Creating avenues for the Adult Learner to function in authoritative positions. By doing this, it creates a sense of belonging and worth.
3. Promoting collegial inquiry which can be brought about through writing and dialogue.
4. Mentoring."
These are seen as "pillars practices," as is stipulated in the writing of Drago-Severson (2008).
Finally, I will seek to examine the kinds of experiences that can be transformed into learning. The term "Andragogy" is the theory of adult learning put forward by Malcolm Knowles. This theory is supported by theorists such as Tough, Merriam, and Pratt, where they emphasize that adults have a need for being "self –directed." "Self –directing" is the process where adults exercise control over their learning and its outcomes. Pratt (1988) states that "…not all adults appear to be equally ready for self-directed learning, nor is an individual equally prepared for self –directed learning in every situation." Many factors will determine how effective this approach to learning will be. As a teacher instructor, it is important that my teaching strategies are in keeping with the level of "self –directed readiness" shown by my teacher-learners, as is recommended by Grow, (1991).
A further experience that can transform into adult learning is when the learner can draw from experiences and apply them to solving problems. This type of learning is described as "performance centered."
The third kind of experience that can be transformed into adult learning occurs when adults learn from each other. This type of learning is informal and helps the learner to analyze and critically address areas of concern. Wilson (1993) suggests that "…adults learn inexperience as they act in situations and are acted upon by situations, rather than the traditional assumptions that adults learn from experience."
In conclusion, it is safe to say that Adult Education and Adult Learning both contribute to the development of knowledge and the necessary skills needed by adults to conduct their daily lives. They both give the opportunity to all people for the full development of the personality (UNESCO, 1977,p.2) states.
Works Cited
Knowles, M.S. (1980) The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd.ed.). Chicago: Association/ Follett.
Thomas (1991). Diversity Management: A New Organizational Paradigm http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1005907602028#page-1
Brookfield, S. D. (2003). Adult education learning model. In A. DiStefano, K. E. Rudestam, & R. Silverman (Eds.), Encyclopedia of distributed learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Retrieved from http://sage-ereference.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/view/distributedlearning/n9.xml
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., and Baumgartner, L. (2007) Learning in adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Courtney (1989). As cited in Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The professions and practice of adult education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Drago- Severson,E .2008. Four practices that serve as pillars for adult learning. Journal of Staff Development 29(4),60-63
Pratt, D.D., 1988. Andragogy as a relational construct. Adult Education Quarterly,38,160-181. http://www.academia.edu/3625772/Andragogy_After_Twenty-Five_Years
Grow, G.1991. Teaching learners to be self-directed: A stage approach. Adult Education Quarterly,41(3), 125-149. http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/6.1.3.pdf
Wilson, A.L.1993. The promise of situated cognition. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education
Volume 1993, Issue 57, pages 71–79, Spring 1993
Laureate Education. Inc. (2011). What is Adult Learning? Retrieved on January 12, 2014, from https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_4197471_1%26url%3D
It is, therefore, important that great emphasis is placed on training teachers since, in Education, teachers are viewed as significant contributors to the quality of students produced. Thus, the input by teachers will have a direct bearing on strategies and materials needed to aid the learner in educational pursuit to achieve at the highest possible level. As an adult instructor at the Cyril Potter College of Education where teachers are trained to be professionals, the main goal of the college is to create learning experiences that would, "…help individuals satisfy their needs and achieve their goals," the ultimate goal being "human fulfillment" as is encouraged in the writings of Knowles (1980) p.27.
The concepts of adult education and adult learning varies from person to person and theorist to theorist. It is important to note that there are marked similarities between Adult Education and Adult Learning. Thomas (1991) states that "…education cannot exist without learning…" since they both contribute to the personal and societal growth of the Adult Learner. These learning experiences are, therefore, integrated into the curriculum of Adult Education. This gives the Adult Learner greater liberty in directing their learning and its outcomes. In some cases, learning practices are even adjusted with the discovery of new research.
Another similarity existing between Adult Education and Learning is that both can take place in formal and informal settings. A formal setting, as described by Stephen Brookfield's (Course Video), is characterized by "…rows of desks neatly arranged with heads meticulously bent over them reviewing content." Adult Education and Adult Learning consist of a combination of formal and informal settings from which experiences are gained. These experiences expose the Adult Learner to different methods of learning and encourage them to incorporate the skills attained into study practices and to life situations as a whole. Here, I reflect on pursuing my Degree in( Geography). This area was chosen because it was in keeping with my career goal. I learned in formal and informal settings. Upon completion of this program, a certificate was awarded. It is worthy of mention that Adult Education depends on the Adult learning outcomes, which are rewarded by certificates, diplomas, and degrees.
However, there are differences that exist between Adult Education and Adult Learning. One such difference is that Adult Education occurs through planned activities geared to appeal to the cognitive ability of the Adult Learner while Adult Learning "is the unplanned, incidental learning that is part of everyday life…" as is cited in the writing of (Merriam & Brockett, 2007.p.7). I recall learning to bake bread from my mother, who was a Home Economics teacher attached to the school I attended. Her classes were theory-based, which highlighted the ingredients to the texture of the dough and the process to attain the right texture. However, I never got my bread just right. Subsequently, I viewed a program on a cooking channel on television and decided to bake a pan of bread for dinner. To my surprise, it was the best-baked bread I had ever eaten. This comment may be viewed as subjective. Nevertheless, the essence of this is that learning isn't limited to the classroom for an Adult Learner. Adult Education, on the other hand, occurs through planned cognitive processes, which are not always the best method to employ to Adult learners, as was highlighted in my scenario.
A benefit of Adult Learning manifests itself as I recall the former years of my teaching career. At this point, I was no more than four years older than my students-many of whom considered me as their peer. This process was plagued with many trials and uncountable errors. Some of these errors ranged from screaming at the top of my lungs to control an unruly class while contributing to the noise also, to dismissing students who showed no interest in learning. Today, I am much wiser -thanks to the experiences I've had. It was after instructing my "peers" in the Secondary school that I knew I wanted to be an educator. Merely imparting knowledge to students was no longer enough; I wanted to instruct teachers on appropriate methodologies based on my experience and the expectations of the curriculum and of society at large. Today, I am better able to employ strategies to deal with similar situations and to also deal effectively with new ones. This is portrayed in Stephen Brookfield (course video), where 'adulthood' is viewed as "… a range of experiences upon which adults can draw" and grow as individuals.
One drawback of formal Adult Institutions where Adult education takes place is that a lot of emphases is placed on theory. This leaves the learner unable to apply this information to real-life situations or solve problems. Later, this can contribute to problems in the adult's work environment since there is very little one can draw from and identify with. One may be seen as a liability rather than an asset to one's employer. Another drawback of Adult Education is that adult learners are unable to build on the experience gained and cannot apply it to the learning situation since they are emotionally incapable of change. A third drawback of Adult Education is that Adult Learners are all taught the same way. Adulthood comes with many challenges ranging from social to economic in origin. With this in mind, Adult Educational institutions can benefit the Adult learner by:
1. "Encouraging the Adult learner to practice teaming both in and out of the school environment through teaching teams, thus developing partnerships with other organizations.
2. Creating avenues for the Adult Learner to function in authoritative positions. By doing this, it creates a sense of belonging and worth.
3. Promoting collegial inquiry which can be brought about through writing and dialogue.
4. Mentoring."
These are seen as "pillars practices," as is stipulated in the writing of Drago-Severson (2008).
Finally, I will seek to examine the kinds of experiences that can be transformed into learning. The term "Andragogy" is the theory of adult learning put forward by Malcolm Knowles. This theory is supported by theorists such as Tough, Merriam, and Pratt, where they emphasize that adults have a need for being "self –directed." "Self –directing" is the process where adults exercise control over their learning and its outcomes. Pratt (1988) states that "…not all adults appear to be equally ready for self-directed learning, nor is an individual equally prepared for self –directed learning in every situation." Many factors will determine how effective this approach to learning will be. As a teacher instructor, it is important that my teaching strategies are in keeping with the level of "self –directed readiness" shown by my teacher-learners, as is recommended by Grow, (1991).
A further experience that can transform into adult learning is when the learner can draw from experiences and apply them to solving problems. This type of learning is described as "performance centered."
The third kind of experience that can be transformed into adult learning occurs when adults learn from each other. This type of learning is informal and helps the learner to analyze and critically address areas of concern. Wilson (1993) suggests that "…adults learn inexperience as they act in situations and are acted upon by situations, rather than the traditional assumptions that adults learn from experience."
In conclusion, it is safe to say that Adult Education and Adult Learning both contribute to the development of knowledge and the necessary skills needed by adults to conduct their daily lives. They both give the opportunity to all people for the full development of the personality (UNESCO, 1977,p.2) states.
Works Cited
Knowles, M.S. (1980) The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd.ed.). Chicago: Association/ Follett.
Thomas (1991). Diversity Management: A New Organizational Paradigm http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1005907602028#page-1
Brookfield, S. D. (2003). Adult education learning model. In A. DiStefano, K. E. Rudestam, & R. Silverman (Eds.), Encyclopedia of distributed learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Retrieved from http://sage-ereference.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/view/distributedlearning/n9.xml
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., and Baumgartner, L. (2007) Learning in adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Courtney (1989). As cited in Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The professions and practice of adult education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Drago- Severson,E .2008. Four practices that serve as pillars for adult learning. Journal of Staff Development 29(4),60-63
Pratt, D.D., 1988. Andragogy as a relational construct. Adult Education Quarterly,38,160-181. http://www.academia.edu/3625772/Andragogy_After_Twenty-Five_Years
Grow, G.1991. Teaching learners to be self-directed: A stage approach. Adult Education Quarterly,41(3), 125-149. http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/6.1.3.pdf
Wilson, A.L.1993. The promise of situated cognition. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education
Volume 1993, Issue 57, pages 71–79, Spring 1993
Laureate Education. Inc. (2011). What is Adult Learning? Retrieved on January 12, 2014, from https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_4197471_1%26url%3D
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